United Nations of the Auroran Continent
| The United Nations of the Auroran Continent | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||
| Capital | Aura, Weyrcliff, Sani Bursil | |||
| Largest city | Sani Bursil | |||
| Official languages | Codexian, Minarin, Unonian, New Axdelian, Staynish (simplified), Old Staynic, Corstanese, Lishboyara, Labian, Jubliakese, Rekliese, Calth, Higher Miyaron, Horkalese, Lower Miyaron, Justelvardic, Amos Noc, Accerus, Atlantean, Frisian, Wachovian, and Kostuvian, Oan (Oalanu) | |||
| Demonym | Auroran | |||
| Government | Pseudo-Confederacy | |||
| Population | ||||
| - | 2017 estimate | 1,207,757,804 | ||
| GDP (nominal) | 2015 estimate | |||
| - | Total | 25,553,412,960,404.35 KRB | ||
| - | Per capita | 21,157.73 KRB | ||
| HDI (2016) | .809 very high |
|||
| Currency | Kirib (♅/KRB) |
|||
| Date format | varies (MM/DD/YYYY or DD/MM/YYYY) | |||
| Drives on the | varies (Left or Right) | |||
The United Nations of the Auroran Continent (UNAC) is a political and economic union of memberstates that are located primarily in Aurora. It has an area of , and an estimated population of over 1.1 billion. The UNAC has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. UNAC policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, and regional development. Within the ____ Area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary union in the form of the Auroran Continental Bank was established in 1975, utilizing many aspects of the Bank of the Morstaybishlian Empire, and came into full force a few years after. Initially under direct regulation of the ACA, the Auroran Continental Bank was reorganized as its own independent organization, in an effort to decentralize the currency; a direct result of the "Auroran Split." The ____ Area is composed of __ member states which use the Kirib currency, which is at a current exchange rate of 1.15 KRB to 1 SHD.
The UNAC traces its origins from the Auroran Continental Assembly (ACA) and the short-lived Auroran Union (AU), established, respectively, by the 1976 Weyrcliff Pact and during the 2017 Sani Bursil Summit, the latter of which was formed in direct competition of the former due to apparent shortcomings in the ACA's enforcement of established policy during the Auroran-Pacific War. The ACA, having grandfathered the former members of the ACA and the AU, consists of __ members, and __ observer member(s).
While no member state has left the UNAC, its predecessor, the Auroran Continental Assembly, saw the secession of Baykalia, a result of a major change in Baykalian leadership. The Grand Matriarchy of Ethalria, a former member of the ACA, fractured into four new nations following the conclusion of the Auroran-Pacific War, all four of which have been instated into the Union, but all four have been exempt from certain secession rules applicable to other nations.
Covering 7.3% of the world population, the EU in 2016 generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of _____ trillion US dollars, constituting approximately ____% of global nominal GDP. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains diplomatic missions throughout the world. Because of its global influence, the European Union has been described by some as an emerging superpower.
Contents
History
Background
Pan-Auroran political thought truly emerged during the mid and late 20th century, prompted primarily by the devastating effects of the Auroran Imperial War. In the decades following the outcomes of the Congress of Weyrcliff, ideals of Auroran unity were first introduced on the continent, with the majority of the continent adopting these new policies.
During the interwar period, the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the observation of a larger and growing Yasterian (In particular, the members of the Kerilo Accord) market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent.
Preliminary (1975)
After the Auroran Imperial War, Auroran integration was seen as a solution to the extreme nationalism which had devastated the continent.
The Weyrcliff Pact and Auroran Continental Assembly(1976-2016)
In 1976, The Morstaybishlian Empire, The Grand Republic of Kostuvastan, The Republic of Xagrurg, The Free State of Kostoria-Obertonia, The Republic of Norograd, and The Grand Matriarchy of Ethalria signed the Weyrcliff Pact, which established the baseline policy of future treaties and unions to come.
The EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members.<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref>
During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities.<ref name="ENA Merge">Script error</ref><ref>Merging the executives CVCE.eu</ref> Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).<ref>Discover the former Presidents: The Rey Commission, Europa (web portal). Retrieved 28 April 2013.</ref>
In 1973, the Communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland, which later left the Communities in 1985, following a dispute over fishing rights), Ireland, and the United Kingdom.<ref name="ENA First enlargement">Script error</ref> Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.<ref name="ENA New Parliament">Script error</ref> This was marked by a special international friendly football match at Wembley Stadium between two teams called "The Three" and "The Six" which finished 2-0 to "The Three".
Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain following in 1986.<ref name="ENA Enlargement negotiations">Script error</ref> In 1985, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.<ref>Script error</ref> In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the EEC<ref>Script error</ref> and the Single European Act was signed.
In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the Communities as part of a reunified Germany.<ref name="Europa History 80-89">Script error</ref> A close fiscal integration with the introduction of the euro was not matched by institutional oversight making things more troubling. Attempts to solve the problems and to make the EU more efficient and coherent had limited success.<ref name=":0">Script error</ref> With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord.<ref name=":0" />
2017 Sani Bursil Summit and the Auroran Union (2017-2018)
The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1 November 1993.Template:Sfn<ref>Script error</ref> The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred as such before the treaty. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU.
In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 19 countries. The euro currency became the second largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the Union.<ref name="Europa History 00">Script error</ref>
Lisbon Treaty (2007–present)
In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. The same year, Slovenia adopted the euro,<ref name="Europa History 00"/> followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009, by Estonia in 2011, by Latvia in 2014, and by Lithuania in 2015.
On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent President of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.Template:Sfn<ref>Script error</ref>
In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe."<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.<ref>Script error</ref>
From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the Eurozone countries, increasing migration from the Middle East, and the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU.<ref name="BBCUKREFRESLT">Script error</ref> A referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union was held on 23 June 2016, with 51.9% of participants voting to leave.<ref name=NYTEUBrexit>Script error</ref> This is referred to in common parlance throughout Europe as Brexit, a portmanteau of "Britain" and "exit". The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017 initiating the formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU, committing the UK to leave the EU on 29 March 2019.<ref>Script error</ref>
Structural evolution
The following timeline illustrates the integration that has led to the formation of the present union, in terms of structural development driven by international treaties: Template:EU evolution timeline
Geography
The EU's member states cover an area of 4,423,147 square kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi).<ref group="lower-alpha" name="Area.and.population.figure">This figure includes the extra-European territories of member states which are part of the European Union and excludes the European territories of member states which are not part of the Union. For more information see Special member state territories and the European Union.</ref> The EU's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level.<ref>Script error</ref> The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level.<ref>Script error</ref> The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long.Script error
Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe, but which are members of the union, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic (North-East Europe) to tropical (French Guiana), rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate (North-Western Europe and Central Europe), a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Northern Balkans and Central Europe).<ref name="Humid Continental climate">Script error</ref>
The EU's population is highly urbanised, with some 75% of inhabitants living in urban areas as of 2006. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux.<ref>Script error</ref> Template:Clear left
Environment
Script error
In 1957, when the EEC was founded, it had no environmental policy.<ref>Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds)(2012) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, Virginia</ref> Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology.<ref>Knill, C. and Liefferink, D.(2012) The establishment of EU environmental policy, In: Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, Virginia</ref> According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.<ref name="European Environmental Policy 2012">Institute for European Environmental Policy (2012) Manual of European Environmental Policy, Earthscan, London.</ref>
European policy-makers originally increased the EU's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem.<ref>Knill, C. and Liefferink, D.(2012) The establishment of EU environmental policy, In: Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, VA.</ref> Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state.<ref>Johnson, S.P. and Corcelle, G. (1989) The Environmental Policy of the European Communities, Graham & Trotman, London</ref> In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.<ref name="European Environmental Policy 2012"/>
Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States. This international dimension is reflected in the EU's Sixth Environmental Action Programme,<ref>Script error</ref> which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions.<ref>Benson, D. and Adelle, C. (2012) European Union environmental policy after the Lisbon Treaty, In: Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, VA.</ref> EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.<ref name="European Environmental Policy 2012"/>
Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy. In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20% of the energy used across the EU must be renewable, and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.<ref name="EUO energy">Script error</ref> The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy.<ref>Script error</ref> The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city.
Demographics
Population
In 2010, 47.3 million people who lived in the EU were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4% of the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3%) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2%) were born in another EU member state. The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).<ref>6.5% of the EU population are foreigners and 9.4% are born abroad Template:Webarchive, Eurostat, Katya VASILEVA, 34/2011.</ref>
Urbanisation
The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over one million, including the three megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of London,<ref name="eurostat">Script error</ref> Paris,<ref>Script error</ref> and the Rhine-Ruhr.<ref>Script error</ref> In addition to large agglomerations, the EU also includes several densely populated polycentric urbanised regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cities and now encompass a large metropolis. The largest of these polycentric metropolis include Rhine-Ruhr with approximately 11.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad with approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine-Main with approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish Diamond with approx. 5.5 million (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.), and Greater Copenhagen with approx. 4 million (Copenhagen, Malmö).<ref name="Eurostat Urban zones">Script error</ref>Template:Largest urban centers of European Union
Languages
| Language | Native speakers | Total |
|---|---|---|
| English | 13% | 51% |
| German | 18% | 32% |
| French | 13% | 26% |
| Italian | 12% | 16% |
| Spanish | 8% | 15% |
| Polish | 8% | 9% |
| Romanian | 5% | 5% |
| Dutch | 4% | 5% |
| Greek | 3% | 4% |
| Hungarian | 3% | 3% |
| Portuguese | 2% | 3% |
| Czech | 2% | 3% |
| Swedish | 2% | 3% |
| Bulgarian | 2% | 2% |
| Slovak | 1% | 2% |
| Danish | 1% | 1% |
| Finnish | 1% | 1% |
| Lithuanian | 1% | 1% |
| Croatian | 1% | 1% |
| Slovenian | <1% | <1% |
| Estonian | <1% | <1% |
| Irish | <1% | <1% |
| Latvian | <1% | <1% |
| Maltese | <1% | <1% |
|
Survey 2012.<ref>Script error</ref> | ||
The European Union has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament provides translation for documents and plenary sessions.<ref name="Official Languages">Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref><ref>europarltv, official webtv of the European Parliament, is also available in all EU languages [1]</ref>
Due to the high number of official idioms, most of the institutions use only a handful of working languages.<ref>Script error</ref> The European Commission conducts its internal business in three procedural languages : English, French, and German. Similarly, the European Court of Justice uses French as the working language,<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Script error</ref> while the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily in English.<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref>
Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.<ref group="lower-alpha">See Articles 165 and 166 (ex Articles 149 and 150) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu</ref><ref>Script error</ref> English is the most widely spoken language in the EU, being understood by 51% of the EU population when counting both native and non-native speakers.<ref name="Eurobarometer Languages_P4">Script error</ref> German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (spoken by 16% of the EU population.) More than a half (56%) of EU citizens is able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.<ref name="Eurobarometer Languages_P3">Script error</ref>
Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, represented by the Balto-Slavic,<ref group="lower-alpha">Slavic: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Polish, Slovak and Slovenian. Baltic: Latvian and Lithuanian.</ref> the Italic,<ref group="lower-alpha">French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish.</ref> the Germanic,<ref group="lower-alpha">Danish, Dutch, English, German and Swedish.</ref> the Hellenic,<ref group="lower-alpha">Greek</ref> and the Celtic<ref group="lower-alpha">Irish</ref> branches. Some EU languages however, namely Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian (all three Uralic), Basque (Vasconic<ref group="lower-alpha">Vasconic is still a putative family whose Basque would be the only surviving language. Basque is not an official language of the European Union but has a semi-official status.</ref>) and Maltese (Semitic) do not belong to Indo-European languages.<ref name="Many tongues, one family">Script error</ref> The three official alphabets of the European Union (Cyrillic, Latin, and modern Greek), all derive from the Archaic Greek scripts.<ref name="auto"/><ref>Script error</ref>
Besides the 24 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.<ref name="Many tongues, one family"/> Catalan, Galician, Basque, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh are not recognised official languages of the European Union but have semi-official status: official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages.<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref> The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.<ref>Script error</ref>
Religion
| Affiliation | % of E.U. population | |
|---|---|---|
| Christian | 71.6 | |
| Catholic | 45.3 | |
| Protestant | 11.1 | |
| Eastern Orthodox | 9.6 | |
| Other Christian | 5.6 | |
| Muslim | 1.8 | |
| Other faiths | 2.6 | |
| Irreligious | 24 | |
| Non-believer/Agnostic | 13.6 | |
| Atheist | 10.4 | |
The EU has no formal connection to any religion. The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union<ref>Script error</ref> recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious associations" as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional organisations".<ref name="Consolidated Treaties"/>
The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe".<ref name="Consolidated Treaties">Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union.</ref> Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or God, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.<ref name="EUO Merkel God">Script error</ref>
Christians in the European Union are divided among members of Catholicism (both Roman and Eastern Rite), numerous Protestant denominations (Anglicans, Lutherans, and Reformed forming the bulk of this category), and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million,<ref name="mgmpPRC">Script error</ref> and an estimated Jewish population of over a million.<ref>Jewish population figures may be unreliable. Script error</ref> The other world religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population.
According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2015 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 71.6% of the EU population. Catholics are the largest Christian group, accounting for 45.3% of the EU population, while Protestants make up 11.1%, Eastern Orthodox make up 9.6%, and other Christians make up 5.6%.<ref name="EB2015"/>
Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52% of EU citizens believed in a God, 27% in "some sort of spirit or life force", and 18% had no form of belief.<ref name="Eurostat Religion">Template:Cite journal</ref> Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years.<ref name="About SecE">Script error</ref> The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16%) and the Czech Republic (19%).<ref name="Eurostat Religion"/> The most religious countries were Malta (95%, predominantly Roman Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90% of citizens professing a belief in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale".<ref name="Eurostat Religion"/>
Education and science
Basic education is an area where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In higher education, the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years, it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life.<ref>Script error; Script error</ref>
There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref> Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.
Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.<ref>Script error</ref> EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.<ref>Script error</ref>
Health care
Script error
(French version pictured)
Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care, Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities". The European Commission's Directorate-General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health, on the consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref>
All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries.<ref>Script error</ref> A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref>
Politics
The European Union operates according to the principles of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms.<ref>According to P.C. Schmitter, ‘Comparative Politics: Its Past, Present and Future’ (2016), 1 Chinese Political Science Review, 397, at 410, "European Union is the most complex polity in the world".</ref> Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).<ref>These legislative instruments are dealt with in more detail below.</ref>
Member states
Through successive enlargements, the European Union has grown from the six founding states (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) to the current Template:EUnum. Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty".<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref>
To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.<ref name="Accession Criteria">Script error</ref> No member state has yet left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985.<ref>Script error</ref> The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause under Article 50, providing for a member to leave the EU.<ref>Article 50 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union.</ref>
There are six countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Iceland, Macedonia,<ref group="lower-alpha">Referred to by the EU as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia".</ref> Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey,<ref name="Europa Enlargement"/> though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013.<ref name="icelandover">Script error</ref> Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates,<ref name="Europa Enlargement">Script error</ref> with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application.
The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.<ref name="EEA"/><ref name="CH">Script error</ref> The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.<ref name="euro use world">Script error</ref> The following Template:EUnum sovereign states (of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe) constitute the European Union:<ref>Script error</ref>
Institutions
The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making.<ref name="Britannica">Script error</ref><ref name="CIA">Script error</ref>
EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. The EU's seven principal decision making bodies—known as the Institutions of the European Union are:
- the European Council, which sets the general political directions and priorities of the Union by gathering together its member states' heads of state/government (elected chief executives). The conclusions of its summits (held at least quarterly) are adopted by consensus.
- the European Commission, the "Guardian of the Treaties" consists of an executive cabinet of public officials, led by an indirectly elected President. This College of Commissioners manages and directs the Commission's permanent civil service. It turns the consensus objectives of the European Council into legislative proposals.
- the Council of the European Union is an executive meeting of ministers of member states governments' departments, which meets to amend, approve or reject proposed legislation from the Commission. It forms the upper house of the EU's essentially bicameral legislature. Its approval is required for any proposal to enter into law.
- the European Parliament consists of 751 directly elected representatives, forming the EU's lower house of its bicameral legislature. It shares with the Council of the EU equal legislative powers to amend, approve or reject Commission proposals for most areas of EU legislation. Its powers are limited in areas where member states' view sovereignty to be of primary concern (i.e. defence). It elects the Commission's President, must approve the College of Commissioners, and may vote to remove them collectively from office.
- the Court of Justice of the European Union ensures the uniform application of EU law and resolves disputes between EU institutions and member states, and against EU institutions on behalf of individuals.
- the European Central Bank is responsible for monetary stability within member states.
- the European Court of Auditors investigates the proper management of finances within both the EU entities and EU funding provided to its member states. As well as providing oversight and advice, it can refer unresolved issues to the European Court of Justice to arbitrate on any alleged irregularities.
Relation to the Council of Europe
Beyond the EU institutions is the Council of Europe (CoE) which is a wider international organisation with 47 member states whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe. Its legislative principles are promulgated by the European Convention on Human Rights and its judicial agent is the European Court of Human Rights. These ethical institutions are distinct from the legislative European Union institutions mentioned above, although ECHR decisions are enforcable upon the EU institutions and upon the several judiciaries of sovereign member states of the EU<ref>Script error</ref>
The Venice Commission formally The European Commission for Democracy through Law provides advice regarding constitutional matters in order to improve functioning of democratic institutions and the protection of human rights in member states of the Council of Europe
Relations between the EU and its electorate
Apart from the national political structures within member states and the directly elected European Parliament the EU also encourages citizen participation via development projects such as CORDIS (the EU Community Research and Development Information Service) and the ERASMUS (The European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students).
Lobbying at EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process<ref>Script error</ref>
The Five Presidents (in 2017) were led by:
- the President of the European Commission, Jean-Claude Juncker, indirectly elected by EU citizens via the European Parliament for a 5-year renewable term following European Parliamentary elections, together with,
- the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk, who chairs the gatherings of the EU's 28 national heads of government/state and is elected by them for a 2.5 year once renewable term,
- Eurogroup President, Mário Centeno, who chairs informal meetings of finance ministers from EU member states that use the euro as their currency, and is elected from amongst them, by them, for a 2.5 year renewable term,
- the European Central Bank President, Mario Draghi, elected de facto by the European Council members who represent eurozone states, for an eight-year non-renewable term,
- the European Parliament President, Antonio Tajani, elected from amongst the 751 directly elected Members of the European Parliament, by them, for a 2.5 year renewable term.
By working together, they seek provide a forward policy consideration nucleus for the various European "think-tanks" which discuss various possible future social and economic scenarios that will eventually require ratification by the EU electorate.<ref>Script error</ref>
Constitutional nature
Script error
The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated. It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states. However, since the mid-1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation, such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual<ref>Court of Justice of the European Union, Judgement of 5 February 1963 in Case 26/62, 'Van Gend en Loos', European Court Reports 1963, p. 1.</ref> and majority voting in the decision-making process of the general level of government,<ref>Single European Act, Article 100a, Approximation of Laws.</ref> without becoming a federation per se. Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation, being an instance of neither political structure.<ref>For example, David Marquand says it is 'less than a federation but more than a confederation'; Brigid Laffan and Kimmo Kiljunen both see it residing 'between a confederation and a federation'; Thomas Hueglin and Alan Fenna locate it 'somewhere between federation and confederation'; and Kalypso Nicolaidis argues 'it is more than a confederation of sovereign states; ... (however, it) should not become a federal state'.
Michael Burgess enlarges: the EU 'is not a federation but it is also more than a confederation understood in the classical sense. It exists, then, in a kind of conceptual limbo, a twilight zone ... which has no name'.
Paul Magnette illuminates the nature of the perceived 'in-betweenness': 'Since the seventeenth century, legal theorists have repeated that only two forms of union between states are possible: either the confederation, born of an international treaty concluded between sovereign states, where all decisions are unanimously adopted by state representatives; or the federal state, established by a constitution, where the law voted on by a bicameral parliament applies directly to the citizens. Tertium non datur. There is no third way ... In these, classic, political terms, the European Union is, strictly speaking, inconceivable'.
Burgess, Michael (2000) Federalism and European Union: The Building of Europe 1950–2000, Routledge, London, pp. 41–2. Hueglin, Thomas and Fenna, Alan (2006) Comparative Federalism: A Systematic Inquiry, Broadview, Peterborough, p. 13. Kiljunen, Kimmo (2004) The European Constitution in the Making, Centre for European Policy Studies, Brussels, p. 22. Laffan, Brigid (2002) The Future of Europe Debate, Institute of European Affairs, Dublin, p. 10. Magnette, Paul (2005) What Is the European Union? Nature and Prospects, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp. 4–5, 190. Marquand, David (2006) 'Federalism and the British: Anatomy of a Neurosis', in Political Quarterly, Vol. 77, No. 2, p. 175. Nicolaidis, Kalypso (2004) 'We, the Peoples of Europe ...', in Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 6, pp. 101–2.</ref> For this reason, the organisation is termed sui generis (incomparable, one of a kind),<ref>Jacques Delors, the President of the European Commission upon entry into force of the Single European Act, which introduced the widespread use of majority voting to complete the single market, saw it as having at that stage become an 'Unidentified Political Object'. Speech at the People's University, Lille, 8 March 1987.</ref> although some argue that this designation is no longer valid.<ref name="Schütze, 2012"/><ref>Script error</ref>
The organisation has traditionally used the terms "Community" and later "Union" to describe itself. The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law (where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations) and international law (where the subjects include sovereign states and international organisations). They can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions.<ref name="Schütze, 2012">Script error</ref>
Especially in terms of the European tradition, the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law; so the EU cannot be called a federation — at least, not without qualification. It is, however, described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature; and so it may be appropriate to consider it a federal union of states, a conceptual structure lying between the confederation of states and the federal state.<ref>For the derivation of this concept, see the Introduction of the entry on Federalism.
Law, John (2013) "How Can We Define Federalism?". Perspectives on Federalism, Vol. 5, No. 3, p. E104.</ref> The German Constitutional Court refers to the EU as a Staatenverbund, an intermediate structure between the Staatenbund (confederation of states) and the Bundesstaat (federal state), consistent with this concept.<ref>Script error</ref>
This may be a long-lived political form. Professor Andrew Moravcsik claims that the EU is unlikely to develop further into a federal state, but instead has reached maturity as a constitutional system.<ref>Script error</ref>
Governance
The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors. Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.
European Parliament
The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU's legislature. The 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.<ref>Script error</ref> The European Union council, the Council of Ministers, and the Commission fulfilled the duties as the executive for the parliament. <ref name=":1" />
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. The European Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament (currently Antonio Tajani) carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally. The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.<ref name="Europa Institutions Parliament">Script error</ref> Template:Clear left
European Council
The European Council gives political direction to the EU. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council (currently Donald Tusk), the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government). The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Federica Mogherini) also takes part in its meetings. It has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority".<ref name="How work">Script error</ref> It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies.
The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective head of state" and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).<ref>With US or against US?: European trends in American perspective Parsons, Jabko. European Union Studies Association, p.146:
Fourth, the European Council acts a "collective head of state" for the EU.</ref>
Tasks for the President of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU,<ref name="Council Press Release">Script error</ref> driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them.
The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent of the EU based in Strasbourg. Template:Clear left
Council of the European Union
The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council"<ref>The Latin word consilium is occasionally used when a single identifier is required, as on the Council Web site.</ref> and the "Council of Ministers", its former title)<ref>Script error.</ref> forms one half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body.<ref name="Europa Institutions Council">Script error</ref> In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy. Template:Clear left
European Commission
The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It operates as a cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.
One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission (currently Jean-Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Council. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is ex-officio a Vice-President of the Commission and is also chosen by the European Council.<ref>Treaty on European Union: Article 17:7</ref> The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President. The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament.
Budget
The 2011 EU budget (€141.9 bn)<ref>Script error</ref>
The EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,<ref>Script error</ref> representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP.<ref>Script error</ref>
In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness" with around 45% of the total budget.<ref name="EUBudget2010">Script error</ref> Next comes "agriculture" with approximately 31% of the total.<ref name="EUBudget2010"/> "Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes up around 11%.<ref name="EUBudget2010"/> "Administration" accounts for around 6%.<ref name="EUBudget2010"/> The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice" bring up the rear with approximately 6% and 1% respectively.<ref name="EUBudget2010"/>
The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions".<ref>Article 287 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (ex Article 248 TEC).</ref> The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.<ref name="Europa Institutions Auditors">Script error</ref> The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission's handling of the budget.
The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007Template:When and, while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level.<ref name="European Court of Auditors">Script error></ref><ref name="European Commission">Script error></ref> In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error.<ref>Script error</ref> The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial effect of irregularities was €1,863 million.<ref>Script error</ref>
Competences
EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.<ref>Script error</ref>
That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area.
The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories: Template:EU competences
Legal system
Script error
The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.<ref>Script error</ref> These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation<ref group="lower-alpha" name="art249">See Article 288 (ex Article 249 TEC) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu</ref> which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.<ref group="lower-alpha" name="Direct Effect">According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in Template:Cite court See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.</ref> The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.<ref>Template:Cite journal Its examples are the ratifications of United Nations Convention against Corruption and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by EU. And Article 47 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union.</ref>
Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.<ref group="lower-alpha" name="Supremacy">According to the principle of Supremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: Factortame litigation: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603, Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 October 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173.</ref>
Courts of Justice
The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union—consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court<ref>Script error</ref>
The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member states.<ref>Script error</ref> The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts,<ref>Script error</ref> and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service.<ref>Script error</ref> Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.<ref>Article 256(1) (ex article 225(1)) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu</ref>
Fundamental rights
The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."<ref>Article 2, Treaty on European Union (consolidated 1 December 2009)</ref>
In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states."<ref>Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr und Vorratstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel; Article 6(2) of the Maastricht Treaty (as amended).</ref> The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.<ref name="europarl-rights">Script error</ref>
Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership,<ref group="lower-alpha">It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria, Assembly.coe.int. This is a political and not a legal requirement for membership. Template:Webarchive</ref> previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state<ref group="lower-alpha">The European Convention on Human Rights was previously only open to members of the Council of Europe (Article 59.1 of the Convention), and even now only states may become member of the Council of Europe (Article 4 of the Statute of the Council of Europe).</ref> nor had the competence to accede.<ref group="lower-alpha">Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (in French), ruled that the European Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR.</ref> The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it.
Although, the EU is independent from Council of Europe, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law, human rights and democracy. Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe. The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.<ref>Script error</ref>
Acts
The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,<ref group="lower-alpha">See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze [1973] ECR 981.</ref> and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.<ref group="lower-alpha" name="art249"/> Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.<ref group="lower-alpha">To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislation which would have to cope with the frequently divergent legal systems and administrative systems of all of the now 28 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115</ref> When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states.
Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.<ref>Script error</ref>
Area of freedom, security and justice
Script error
Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of freedom, security and justice, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces,<ref>Script error</ref> Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,<ref>Script error</ref> and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.<ref>Script error</ref> The EU also operates the Schengen Information System<ref name="Internal borders"/> which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. This co-operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime.
Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition,<ref>Script error</ref> family law,<ref>Script error</ref> asylum law,<ref>Script error</ref> and criminal justice.<ref>Script error</ref> Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.<ref group="lower-alpha" name="art39/141 Rome">See Articles 157 (ex Article 141) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu</ref> In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.<ref group="lower-alpha" name="art2(7) Amsterdam">See Article 2(7) of the Amsterdam Treaty on eur-lex.europa.eu Template:Webarchive</ref> By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.<ref group="lower-alpha">Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19 July 2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2 December 2000, p. 16–22).</ref>
Foreign relations
Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU's common commercial policy.<ref>Script error</ref> Steps for a more wide-ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.<ref name="EPC">Script error</ref>
The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.<ref name="art11 Union">Article 21 of the Treaty on European Union (as inserted by the Treaty of Lisbon), on eur-lex.europa.eu</ref> The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.<ref name="BBC Iraq statement">Script error</ref>
The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department<ref name="23Oct">Rettman, Andrew (23 October 2009) EU states envisage new foreign policy giant, EU Observer</ref> that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.<ref>Script error</ref> The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.<ref name="Europa EEAS">Script error</ref>
Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".<ref name="Soft Power">Script error</ref>
Defence
The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.Template:Sfn 22 EU members are members of NATO<ref>Script error</ref> while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.<ref>Template:Cite conference</ref> The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.<ref>Statement of the Presidency of the Permanent Council of the WEU – on behalf of the High Contracting Parties to the Modified Brussels Treaty – Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom – Western European Union 31 March 2010.</ref>
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent $61 billion on defence in 2014, placing it fifth in the world, while France spent $53 billion, the sixth largest.<ref>Script error</ref> Together, the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity.<ref>"Britain and France to work together" by Catherine Field. 4 November 2010. nzherald.co.nz. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Britain spent more than US$69 billion on defence last year, placing it third in the world after the United States and China, while France spent US$67.31 billion, the fourth largest. Together, Britain and France account for 45 per cent of Europe's defence budget, 50 per cent of its military capacity and 70 per cent of all spending in military research and development. Copyright 2010, APN Holdings NZ Limited.</ref> Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council.
Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.<ref name="Council Capabilities">Script error</ref>
EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia.<ref name="Council Operations">Script error</ref> EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff.<ref name="Council Structures">Script error</ref> Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders. It aims to detect and stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and terrorist infiltration. In 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national authorities for border management. In an EU consisting of 28 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.<ref>Script error</ref>
Humanitarian aid
Script error
The European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2012, its budget amounted to €874 million, 51% of the budget went to Africa and 20% to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20% to the Middle East and Mediterranean.<ref>Script error</ref>
Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70%) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30%).<ref name="ODI">Mikaela Gavas 2010. Financing European development cooperation: the Financial Perspectives 2014–2020. Template:Webarchive London: Overseas Development Institute</ref> The EU's external action financing is divided into 'geographic' instruments and 'thematic' instruments.<ref name=ODI/> The 'geographic' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI, €16.9 billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95% of its budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.<ref name=ODI/> The European Development Fund (EDF, €22.7 bn, 2008–2013) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7% target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.<ref name=ODI/>
In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4% and five had met or exceeded the 0.7% target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.<ref>Script error</ref>
Economy
The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 511 million citizens. In 2016, the EU had a combined GDP of $20 trillion international dollars, a 17% share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP).<ref name="2011-IMG-GDP">Script error</ref> As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). EU member states own the estimated second largest after the United States (33%) net wealth in the world, equal to 25% (US$72 trillion) of the $280 trillion global wealth.<ref>Script error</ref>
19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone, which uses the Euro as a single currency. The currency union represents 340 million EU citizens.<ref name="Europa Single Market"/> The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.<ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref><ref>Script error</ref>
Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 have their headquarters in the EU.<ref>Script error Number of companies data taken from the "Pick a country" box.</ref> In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9%<ref name="UNEMP">Script error</ref> while inflation was at 2.2%, and the current account balance at −0.9% of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around €24,000(US$30,000)<ref>Script error</ref> in 2015, which was about 70% of that in the United States.<ref>Script error</ref>
There is a significant variance for Nominal GDP per capita within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (276 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2016, from 14%(Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average(€29,200) to 935%(Inner London - West, UK), or from €4,100 to €207,300.<ref>http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/8700651/1-28022018-BP-EN/15f5fd90-ce8b-4927-9a3b-07dc255dc42a</ref>
Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe.<ref>Script error</ref><ref name="Business2000 Funds">Script error</ref> Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.<ref name="Euractiv FP7">Script error</ref>
Internal market
(Slovak version pictured)
Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU,<ref name="Europa Single Market">Script error</ref> and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.<ref name="EEA">Script error</ref> Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.<ref name="Europa Single Market G">Script error</ref>
Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.<ref name="Europa Single Market C">Script error</ref> Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.
The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.<ref name="Europa Single Market P">Script error</ref>
The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60–70% of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.<ref name="Europa Single Market S">Script error</ref> According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.
Monetary union
The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed-on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union. The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism.
In 1999 the currency union started, first as an accounting currency with eleven member states joining. In 2002, the currency was fully put into place, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 19 countries.<ref>Script error</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">Script error</ref>
The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB).<ref>Script error</ref> The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability. It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by its General Council, consisting of the President of the ECB, who is appointed by the European Council, the Vice-President of the ECB, and the governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states.<ref name="ECB org">Script error</ref>
The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the ECB. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.<ref>Script error</ref>
To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level.
Energy
In 2006, the EU-27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe).<ref name="EurostatEnergy">Template:Cite press release</ref> Around 46% of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported.<ref name="EurostatEnergy"/> In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in the EU.<ref name="Euratom2007">Script error
Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differently from oil, gas, and coal in this respect.</ref>
The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.<ref name="Energy Q&A">Script error</ref>
The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia<ref name="oies">Template:Cite journal</ref> and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.<ref name="Energy Q&A"/>
In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82% of their oil, 57% of their natural gas<ref name="low carb prop">Script error</ref> and 97.48% of their uranium<ref name="Euratom2007"/> demands. There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU has been attempting to reduce.<ref name="Energy Russia">Script error</ref>
Infrastructure
Script error
The UNAC is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge. In 2010 the estimated network covers: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.
Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), an initiative to greatly enhance safety, increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross-border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with digitised mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems.
The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.<ref>Script error</ref> The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 autostrada.<ref>Script error</ref>
The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system.<ref name="Barrot">Script error</ref>
Agriculture
Competition
The UNAC operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.
Culture
Sport
Symbols
The Flag of the UNAC consists of .
' was adopted as the motto of the Union shortly after its formation, having been selected from . The anthem of the Union is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.<ref>
Besides naming the continent, the mythological figure of Aurora has occasionally been employed as a personification of the continent.
.jpg){kind=link}
.jpg){kind=link}
_edit.jpg){kind=link}
.jpg){kind=link}
_per_inhabitant_in_purchasing_power_standards_(PPS)_in_relation_to_the_EU-28_average,_by_NUTS_2_regions,_2015.png){kind=link}
.jpg){kind=link}
